Bio-fuel
From ClimateNetworkWiki
Contents |
Overview
What are Bio-fuels?
Bio-fuels can be produced from any organic material from which we can unlock solar energy. For example, we can produce bio-oil, bio-char, and byio-gas or bio-methane as sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels. Though their production can, theoretically, be sustained rather relying on extracting limited quantities, they may still contribute to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Bio-fuels have extensive historical use, primarily though the combustion of dried organic materials (the cellulose or sugars in plants, wood, charcoal, dung, or peat), or oil extraction from organic materials (animal fats and vegetable oils).
How it works
Controversies and Challenges
Resources
Bio-fuels from Waste
General
Butterworth, B. (2006). Closed-loop sustainable fuel production. Refocus, 7(3), 60-61.
This journal article looks at “closing the loop” between first and second generation bio-fuels, so that their environmental energy equations look more favorable. Rather than an energy flow of [fossil-fuel based nitrogen fertilizer à crops à ethanol] Butterworth advocates a flow of [waste-based fertilizer (compost) à crops à ethanol]. His analysis offers a compelling point, often missed by larger-scale efficiency analysis.
Capital Regional District (2005).Hartland landfill gas utilization project. Retrieved from: http://www.crd.bc.ca/waste/documents/fcm_landfillgas.pdf
This is the CRD’s overview of it’s Hartland landfill-gas capture system, which supplies 1600 homes with electricity and offsets 83,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalents.
Capital Regional District (2008).Wastewater treatment made clear. Retrieved from: http://www.wastewatermadeclear.ca/what/innovations.htm
This describes directions the CRD is looking at for waste-water and sewage treatment options, including use of sewage for heat, use of waste-water greases for bio-diesel, and hydrogen from bio-methane.
Demirbas, A. (2008). Bio-fuels from agricultural residues. Energy Sources, 30(2), 1556-7036.
This detailed scientific article identifies potential bio-fuel production from agricultural residues. It includes extensive, detailed analysis of bio-char, bio-methane, and bio-oils.
Hall, P. (2005). From corn waste to bio-fuel. The Environmental Magazine. 16(1). 10.
This short editorial examines potential for waste-based ethanol (traditionally in the domain of crop-based bio-fuel) from corn stover and other agricultural wastes.
Pin Koh, L. & Ghazoul, J. Biofuels, biodiversity, and people: Understanding the conflicts and finding opportunities. Biological Conservation, 141(10), 2450-2460.
This journal article examines the future of bio-fuels, suggesting that second-generation bio-fuels from waste plant material will ameliorate many societal (food and water-security) and ecological problems (land clearing and C02 emissions) with food crop-based bio-fuels. The authors also provide cost projections for various bio-fuels to 2030.
Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto, K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Accessed Oct. 10th from http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter10.pdf)
• This is a chapter from the latest IPCC report: Mitigation. This chapter offers useful information in terms of waste management, and its implications for climate change. The authors present detailed scientific information about various types of waste, and the types and quantities of GHGs that they produce. The authors mention that effective waste management policies can have a positive impact to reduce GHG emissions from waste.
Boyd, M. (n.d.) Landfill gas. Retrieved Oct. 10th, 2008 from BC Sustainable Energy
Association website: http://www.bcsea.org/sustainableenergy/landfillgas.asp
• This very short fact sheet by the BC Sustainable Energy Association offers an overview of landfill gas. Despite the brief information, this site is a good local resource, with many links to initiatives in the CRD, BC, and abroad.
Church, K. (2007). Natural Resources Canada. Community energy planning. Retrieved Oct. 10th,
2008 from http://www.sbc.nrcan.gc.ca/documentation/communities/Community%20Energy%20Plan ning%202007.pdf
• This report looks in-depth at the issues surrounding the feasibility of alternative energy systems in communities across the country. The report is meant to provide guidance to communities to help them develop a community energy plan and to put those plans into action.
Dolgen, D., Sarptas, H; Alpaslan, N; Kucukgul, O. (2005). Energy potential of municipal solid
wastes. Energy Sources, (27) 15, p1483-1492. Retrieved Oct. 10th , 2008 from Academic Search Premier.
• This article looks at energy recovery from solid wastes in Turkey. The study shows that the energy recovered from landfill gases is both environmentally and economically beneficial.
Environment Canada. (2007). Waste management: Landfill gas .Retrieved Oct. 10th ,2008 from
http://www.ec.gc.ca/wmd-dgd/default.asp?lang=En&n=10E36DBA-1
• This fact sheet from Environment Canada is a brief overview of waste management, especially how it relates to landfill gas. This site is a useful starting place for more in-depth research regarding this topic. This website offers links to further information, specifically in terms of policy in Canada regarding waste.
Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., Hawthorne, P. (2008). Land clearing and the
biofuel carbon debt. Science, 319 (5867), 1235-1238. Retrieved Oct.10th, 2008 from the
Academic Search Premier Database.
• This paper discusses the debate that arises from the use of biofuels. The authors argue that the way biofuels are produced have a large influence on the carbon cycle, and that biofuels can either present a carbon debt or a carbon savings. The authors demonstrate how biofuels produced from crop-based sources of biomass produce carbon debts, while other sources of biomass, such as from wastes, can provide carbon savings. A number of critiques to this paper are also available in the form of letters to the editor, and are useful to read to get a thorough understanding of the debate.
Insam, H., & Wett, B. (2008). Control of GHG emission at the microbial community level. Waste Management (28), 4, 699-706. Retrieved Oct.10, 2008 from Academic Search
Premier.
• This paper discusses the decomposition of organic wastes by micro organisms in a variety of situations. The authors describe many forms of waste decomposition, including bogs, forest soils, agricultural soils, dairy farming, and waste and wastewater treatment. The article discusses how such decomposition releases GHGs, but that proper management strategies in relation to these processes can have an effect on decreasing emissions.
Liamsanguan, C.C. & Gheewala, H.S. (2008). LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems. Journal of environmental management, 87(1), 132-138. Accessed Oct.10,2008 from Academic Search Premier database.
• This article looks at two solid waste management options landfilling (without energy recovery), and incineration (with energy recovery) in Phuket, Thailand. The article assess these from a life-cycle assessment perspective and finds that the sustainability of the two management options changes in terms of how they are being analysed. The authors argue that life cycle assessment can be a valuable tool to look at the sustainability of waste management systems.
The Environmental Literacy Council. (2008). What is waste? Retrieved Oct. 10th, 2008, from
http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/1391.html
• This website is meant to be an educational resource to help develop environmental literacy. It provides very basic concepts in a straightforward way, and is suitable for a quick view of environmental issues.
Life Cycle Analysis
Haberl, H., Erb, K-H., & Krausmann, F. (2007). Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP). Internet Encyclopaedia of Ecological Economics. Vienna, Austria: Institute of Social ecology. Retrieved from: [1]
This entry prepared for the Encyclopaedia of Ecological Economics offers an overview on Human Appropriation of Net Primary Productivity (or HANPP) studies, comparing different methods of calculation and different estimations from the 1970s until 2006. It is a good introduction to the concept of HANPP and an evaluation of its use as a critical tool, given the degree of uncertainty in estimation. The authors provide greater context to the oft-cited Vitousek et al. (1986) estimate of HANPP equal to ~ 40%, and indicate newer calculations that are analyzed differently or based on updated data. In sum: an accessible, quick read which will benefit anyone discussing HANPP and its critical value.
Hellweg, S., Doka, G., & Finnveden, G. (2005). Assessing the Eco-efficiency of End-of-Pipe Technologies with the Environmental Cost Efficiency Indicator: A Case Study of Solid Waste Management. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9(4), 189-203.
This peer-reviewed journal article examines eco-efficiency (which compares environmental impacts to economic value added) and revises the concept to make it more suitable for treatment technologies. The authors propose an “Environmental Cost Efficiency” indicator, which would compare net environmental benefit to change in cost. This analysis is suitable for MSW treatment options including landfill, biological, incineration, and pyrolysis—all important comparisons to make before implementing or expanding biofuel capture/production systems in the CRD.
Jungbluth, N. et al. (2007). Life Cycle Inventories of Bioenergy (Ecoinvent report No. 17). Dübendorf, CH: Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories. Retrieved from [2]
This report, financed by the Swiss Federal Offices for Energy, Agriculture, and Environment, offers a useful inventory of Bio-energy sources and their life-cycle impacts. It was created to provide a systematic overview of bio-energy for the ecoinvent database of life-cycle inventory data ([www.ecoinvent.org]). Unfortunately, only the 54 page executive summary is available free of charge (while the body of the document is available from ecoinvent). Though its data is Switzerland-specific, this summary alone offers extensive insights into life-cycle concerns about bio-energy and bio-fuels from both crops and waste. They are especially useful for Canadian application, as many of the same sources (especially wood products) are common to both countries. Progressive policy suggestions created for the Swiss also offer interesting options for Canada. In addition, a number of schematic figures and tables comparing different fuel sources, transformer and distribution technologies, and energy currencies are broadly applicable beyond Switzerland. I highly recommend this summary—if possible, it would likely be beneficial to obtain the full document in English.
Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment. (2000). The Eco-indicator 99: A damage oriented method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Manual for Designers. The Hague, The Netherlands: Communications directorate. Retrieved from: [3]
This government document from The Netherlands is an excellent introduction to a common environmental life-cycle impact assessment tool, cited as a basis for evaluating environmental impacts in many journal articles that deal with Life Cycle Assessment. The Eco-indicator 99 method evaluates impacts based on human health, ecosystem quality, and resources (including energy), meaning that the tool is broadly applicable geographically, and is pertinent to various technologies. In sum: this document offers an accessible glimpse at the vast array of Life-Cycle Analysis tools, and is a good starting point.
Zah, R., Böni, H., Gauch, M., Hischier, R., Lehmann, M., & Wägner, P. (2007). Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Products: Environmental Assessment of Biofuels. Gallen, Switzerland: Empa Technology and Society Lab. Retrieved from[4]
Empa consultants produced this report in conjunction with Jungbluth et al. (2007) to offer a detailed environmental impact assessment of Swiss bio-fuel potential across the production chain (feedstock production, transportation, processing, and use) that could inform policy decisions. The report offers a much-needed, balanced analysis that addresses problems with bio-fuels alongside benefits. It suggests that many bio-fuel supply paths currently entail greater environmental impacts than fossil fuels (though bio-fuels from waste are most promising). The report recommends that policy, through taxation and incentives, should direct only environmentally suitable production paths, and must simultaneously encourage reductions in energy. Though only the executive summary (20 pages) of German document (206 pages) is available in English, I highly recommend it as an overview of the limitations and potential for bio-fuels. A full translation would perhaps reveal much of the information on biofuels lacking from English language sources (and would be more cost-effective than original research!).
First Generation Biofuel
The UN defines First Generation Biofuels as biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil or animal fats using conventional technologies.
Biofuels from Crops
• Resources:
Columbia Fuels is 100% Vancouver Island owned and operated and is the largest supplier of home heating products on Vancouver Island and the West coast of BC. Their website [5] offers an easily accessible website that is packed with information. All of their biodiesel meets ASTM D6751 standards.
• Although the information is somewhat biased (in that they are trying to sell a product), it definitely seems to me that they have all of their facts straight. A clear definition of what bioheat is is given, as well as its many benefits. They cover many FAQs and debunk a lot of myths surrounding biofuels and biodiesel. A number of different links are provided to an array of sources of information from anything like ‘carbon tax’ to ‘combustion testing’.
Founded in 1984, the Canadian Renewable Fuels Association (CRFA) is a non-profit organization with a mission to promote the use of renewable fuels for transportation through consumer awareness and government liaison activities.
The CRFA membership is composed of representatives from all levels of the ethanol and biodiesel industry, including: grain and cellulose ethanol producers, biodiesel producers, fuel technology providers, and agricultural associations.
• Green Fuels offers many links to different works surrounding Ethanol and Biodiesel. There is information on public policy (both federal and provincial) as well as a lot of industry information (such as statistics in Canada and the US and other resources). I find their new blog to be really informative.
The National Biodiesel Board (NBB) is the national trade association representing the biodiesel industry in the United States. Biodiesel is a domestic, renewable fuel for diesel engines derived from natural oils like soybean oil, and which meets the specifications of ASTM D 6751.
• This is where I found most of my information regarding legislation and rules (although much of that information isn’t in my research brief). They provide tons of facts and reports, especially regarding the market around biodiesel.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada STRATEGIC MARKET MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
This report provides information on the 'Market Analysis', 'Public Policy', and 'Science and Technology' surrounding biodiesel in Canada. It was prepared for Agri-culture and Agrifood Canada, and was sponsored by CANUC: Canadian Agriculture New Uses Council and PRA Inc.; Information Into Strategy.
• As a review to Ralph Ashmead’s report, the Strategic Market Management System, Biodiesel Fuel/Additives article was very interesting. It was written for the Agri-food and agriculture sector of Canada, but was focused primarily on biodiesel. I’ve found that biodiesel straddles a lot of sectors, mainly agriculture, energy and waste. For each, scientific research has to be done, economic research and environmental and social research. I’m glad that this paper was written and that there is many other people working on biodiesel as an energy source. This paper gives a market analysis, deals with public policy and deals with science and technological issues.
This plan looks to all forms of clean, alternative energy in meeting British Columbians’ needs in the provincial economy.
• I found that the timeline given by this plan to be a helpful gauge in determining where BC’s energy is headed. Yet I found the BC Energy Plan write-up by Premier Gordon Campbell to be ineffective in delivering any solid messages. Yet I sincerely hope that the provincial government will set real targets and hold firmly to them.
BioFleet is a biodiesel market development program in western Canada.
• This website had huge amounts of helpful information such a where to buy biodiesel, how to make your own biodiesel, current information on marine biodiesel, newspaper articles on biodiesel, where and when symposiums and workshops are being held across Canada, even a Greenfuels map of Canada as well as neat educational videos on all sorts of biofuels (about 19 videos!). I found this to be the most helpful source in regards to Canadian biofuels.
Biodiesel in British Columbia: Feasibility Study Report, Executive Summary by Mike Boyd, Anita Murray-Hill, Kees Schaddelee
This report has been produced so as to provide relevant information to anyone who is exploring the potential to develop a commercially viable biodiesel business in British Columbia.
• For anyone interested in commercial biofuel businesses in Canada, this is an essential report. It seems to be the standard by which Canada and British Columbia follow in terms of feasibility.
Canadian Industrial Energy End-use Data and Analysis Centre
The Canadian Industrial Energy End-Use Data and Analysis Centre is part of the Energy and Materials Research Group in the School of Resource and Environmental Management, which is an academic programme in the Faculty of Applies Sciences at Simon Fraser University.
• The website for CIEEDAC provides as much information as they can. It's their purpose. Their data collection and analysis is extensive. They provide a comprehensive database from 1990 until present. Resources for Impacts on biofuels:
1. Burke, Derek (2007). Biofuels: Is There a Role for GM? in Biologist V 54:1. p52-56. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=55&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
The author of this article explains the importance of the introducing biofuel production into the UK’s economy. He explains that in order to do this, GM (genetically modified) crops will have their place due to the large yield such crops can have on limited amount of land. He elicits that “in the USA, Monsanto are major suppliers of… corn varieties for… ethanol” (p54). The implications of using GM crops are huge in terms of environmental concerns (i.e. mono-cropping can lead to loss in biodiversity). Thus for our report, it is important to know such agricultural concerns of biofuel production as part of the larger impacts.
2. Giampietro, Mario and Sergio Ulgiati (1997). Feasibility of large-scale biofuel production in Bioscience V 47:9. 587-600. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=64&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
The article gives important baseline information about biofuels. The authors question large-scale biofuel production and look at examples in 21 different countries. This article has importance to our report in that it backs up our main concern which is large-scale biofuel production in Victoria Region. So far, we have found that small scale production may be feasible is done with non-food crops, but diversification is key.
3. Holzman, David C (2008). The Carbon Footprint of Biofuels: Can We Shrink It Down to Size in Time? in Focus V 116:6. p A246-A252. Retrieved on 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=44&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
This article outlines the implications that the production of ethanol from corn will have in the United States over the next 20 years and beyond. The use of ethanol as a renewable biofuel is to obtain energy dependence as well as to follow the mitigation of global climate disruption. The shift from soybean crops (the main crop in biodiesel production in the US) to corn crops for ethanol has had major environmental impacts. The author outlines the positive and negative effects of ethanol as a biofuel crop and explains the advantages of using cellulosic biomass in replacement of ethanol corn crops. This article is of importance for our report because currently all of the biofuels that are used in the Victoria Region are imported from the US. Therefore it is important to understand the foregoing impacts that biofuel production has on the ecosystems where they are being produced.
4. Manuel, John (2007). Battle of the Biofuels in Environmental Health Perspectives V115:2. A92-A95. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=63&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
This report discusses the differences between corn ethanol and soybean biodiesel, the pros and cons of both. The author concludes that biodiesel has advantages over corn but using either or both for full dependence of fuels would take away from the US food crops, placing this article within the food vs. fuel debate. The report suggests the production of nonfood crops (cellulosic such as perennial grasses) as an alternative biofuel crop. The significance of this report to our project is that it adds to the many voices calling for non-food crops as alternatives to corn and soybean for biofuel production.
5. Pimentel, David and Tad Patzek (2006). Green Plants, Fossil Fuels, and Now Biofuels in Bioscience 56:11. 875.
This editorial gives a brief outline of the impacts of biofuel production, specifically ethanol from corn. This article adds yet another voice to the food vs. fuel debate, one of the more important issues in the Capital Region.
6. Pitt, Lawrence (2008). ENERGY: Some Musings from and Energy Observer. Power Point Production to Environmental Studies 4809, University of Victoria. Sept. 22, 2008.
This presentation outlined the importance of viewing humans as energy systems and how we impact surrounding ecosystems. The significance of this presentation for our report is that if there is ever to be large-scale production of biofuels within the CRD, human use of the biosphere will increase (2008). Therefore, before production of biofuel crops occurs in BC, issues such as this relating directly to the carrying capacity need to be taken into account.
7. Ringler, Claudia (2008). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Tradeoffs between Food Security and the Environment in Turkish Journal of Agriculture & Forestry V32:3. p147-157. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=66&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
This paper assesses the implications of the switch from food to fuel crop production keeping developing countries at the forefront. The Capital Region currently imports their biofuels from US, however with growing concern in the US about lack of available land for fuel AND food, importing our biofuels from further away may be looked at as an option for the future. Thus it is important to know how our actions are impacting developing countries.
(Other related articles include: Burke, Marshall B., et al (2007). The Ripple Effect: Biofuels, Food Security, and The Environment in Environment V 49:9. 30-43. http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/detail?vid=69&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104&bdata=JmxvZ2lucGFnZT1Mb2dpbi5hc3Amc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=aph&AN=27718494
Runge, C. Ford and Benjamin Senauer (2007). How Biofuels Could Starve the Poor in Foreign Affairs V 86:3. 41-53. http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/detail?vid=70&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104&bdata=JmxvZ2lucGFnZT1Mb2dpbi5hc3Amc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=aph&AN=24764596)
8. Rosenzweig, Cynthia and Daniel Hillel (2007). Agriculture and Climate Change: Effects and Responses in Phi Kappa Phi Forum, V 87:1. 19-24. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=66&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
This article discusses the environmental and social impacts that climate change will have agricultural production with specific focus on the widening gap between developing and developed countries. The authors postulate that carbon sequestration and production of biofuels are key to reducing these impacts. This article is an important resource for our report as it looks at biofuels from a different perspective than many of the other sources so far. It is important to remember that although there is much debate over biofuel production, it is currently being used today and will increase in the future more specifically in the Capital Region. Therefore it is essential to look at sources where reasons for this are discussed.
9.Tyner, Wallace E. (2008). The US Ethanol and Biofuels Boom: Its Origins, Current Status, and Future Prospects in Bioscience C 58:7. p646-653. Retrieved 10/08 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=62&hid=108&sid=39816b0f-9af1-42c2-932b-02700b81dd7a%40sessionmgr104
The article explains the reasons for the boom in biofuels, especially ethanol in the USA, the current biofuel status and some future prospects. The author outlines the impacts of the above, specifically focusing on the cost of ethanol vs. crude oil prices. The relevance of this article to our report is that it is important to understand the complexities of cost-benefit for consumers of fuels especially since the use of biofuels is expected to increase within the Capital Region.
Potential Benefits and Costs of Biofuels?
1.Boyd, M., Murray-Hill, A., Schaddelee, K. (2004). Biodiesel in British Columbia. Wise Energy Co-op and Eco-literacy. [6]
This report focuses, for the most part, on British Columbia’s potential to produce biodiesel from recycled bio-oils. Although this report is outdated in certain respects and does not focus on biofuels from crops (e.g. ethanol and biodiesel), it does provide important recommendations that the CRD and other municipalities could consider in regards to the successful implementation of alternative fuels
2.Canadian Fertilizer Institute (2007). The Importance of Fertilizer to Biofuels in Canada. [7]
This literature review explores whether the fertilizer industry is a vital component in the production of biofuels in Canada. Although I didn’t find this paper to be that helpful, some useful information on government policies surrounding the use of renewable fuels in Canada was provided. This information can be used in our reports to show larger scale policies which have an impact on the CRD’s goals.
3.Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources (2008). BC Bioenergy Strategy. Growing our natural energy advantage. Victoria: The Provincial Government of British Columbia. [8] The B.C. Bioenergy Strategy focuses on secondary or waste biofuels as potential biomass resources. Although the report didn’t have information pertaining to biofuels from first generation sources, it does give the reader an overview of the provincial government’s plan to coordinate the development of bioenergy programs, research initiatives, and potential markets within the province. Recommendations and a future trajectory for the CRD can be developed from these ideas.
4. International Energy Agency (2004). Biofuels for Transport. An International Perspective. [9] This book synthesizes information on ethanol, biodiesel, and other liquid biofuels. Recent trends and future developments as well as costs and benefits are analyzed. The report concludes with excellent information on international and national policies, along with recommendations for increased usage of biofuels. These recommendations could have some transferability to the CRD and will provide cost/benefit information to our research.
5. Capital Regional District (2008). Climate Change. Corporate Action Plan for the Capital Regional District. [10]
The Corporate Action Plan for the CRD provides information on important initiatives to reduce greenhouse gases within the CRD. In 2007, the six CRD member municipalities signed on to the provincial Climate Action Charter as part of their commitment to reduce emissions. The Corporate Action Plan is an overall framework to reduce GHG emissions from CRD Operations and to identify areas of action to achieve carbon-neutral operation by 2012. Contained within the document is the shift to biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol blended fuels within the CRD. This document will help provide baseline information for our report and general information on the CRD’s plan to diversify energy in the Region.
6. Forge, Frederic (2007). Biofuels. An Energy, Environmental or Agricultural Policy? Ottawa: Science and Technology Division. [11] This report considers the implementation of incentive programs to help stimulate the biofuel industry. At present Canada is committed to reach a biofuel target of 5% by 2010, yet the authors claim that a 5% replacement of conventional fuels will have a minor impact on GHG emissions across Canada. Of critical importance is the impact of biofuel use on food security. The authors recommend the monitoring of biofuel markets due to the uncertainty surrounding the effect of an increased demand for grains in the production of biofuels. The report provides useful information on Canadian policies geared towards increasing biofuel production and potential impacts of implementing ambitious biofuel targets. This document will provide important information on impacts of biofuels on food security in the CRD.
7. Pimentel, D., & Patzek, T.W. (2005).Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower. Natural Resources Research, 14(1), 65-76.[ http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/papers/Biofuels/NRRethanol.2005.pdf] The authors conducted a detailed analysis of the energy input-yield ratios of producing ethanol from corn, switch grass, and wood biomass as well as soybean and sunflower plants. They concluded that turning plants such as corn, soybeans, and sunflowers into fuel uses much more energy than the resulting ethanol or biodiesel outputs. However, their net energy calculations have been heavily critiqued. According to other studies, the researchers neglected to include all the inputs (e.g., fertilizer application rates). Some researchers prefer a comprehensive approach and include all the energy sources used to produce ethanol in their energy use estimates. They argue that conclusions about potential domestic energy gains from ethanol production would be incomplete if only a part of the total energy system is assessed. The article highlights the need for more research on Net Energy Balance (NEB) in order for the CRD to make their case for the increased use of biofuels.
8. Federal Government of Canada (2002).Climate Change Plan for Canada. [www.climatechange.gc.ca] This report outlines a three step approach for achieving Canada’s climate change objective of reducing annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 240 megatonnes (MT). The federal governments plan identifies action in seven broad areas: transportation; housing and commercial/institutional buildings; large industrial emitters; renewable energy and cleaner fossil fuels; small and medium-sized enterprises and fugitive emissions; agriculture, forestry and landfills; and the international emissions reductions. In regards to our research, this report provides us with information on the federal government’s goal of increasing the amount of gasoline containing 10% ethanol blend to 35% of the market and increasing biodiesel production to 500 million litres. These policies will impact the CRD’s decision making processes and has been useful in our research in providing national policy regarding biofuel production and use.
9.BioCap Canada. (2008). An Information Guide on Pursuing Biomass Energy Opportunities and Technologies in British Columbia for First Nations, Small Communities, Municipal and Industry.[12] This report is meant to assist stakeholders in small communities, aboriginal groups, municipalities and industry in developing bioenergy options in B.C. Unfortunately the report is of little use to our group because it focused on biomass and not specifically on biofuels from crops. However, it is a comprehensive resource for the group undertaking research in the area of biofuels made from waste.
10.Boyd, M., Murray-Hill, A., Schaddelee, K. (2005).Vancouver Island Biodiesel Evaluation Study. Victoria: Wise Energy and the City of Victoria. This report describes the findings of the Vancouver Island Biodiesel Evaluation Study Project (VIBES). The VIBES project involved the building of B.C and Canadian awareness that biodiesel is a viable alternative fuel for both fleet and individual diesel vehicles. This was Canada’s largest cross-sector biodiesel study and participants represented three major Canadian transportation sectors including industry (Columbia Fuels and Vancouver Island Powerline), public Transport (BC Transit, and Sooke School District 62), and three levels of government (BC Mail Plus, Canada Post, City of Victoria and the District of Saanich). This report will provide us information on biodiesel use in the CRD region.
11.Dale, Bruce. (2007). Thinking clearly about biofuels: ending the silly “Net Energy” controversy. [13] Bruce Dale argues that a net energy analysis is largely irrelevant because it ignores the fact that we value different energy carriers in different ways. One of the most important metrics according to Dale is not total energy used to create ethanol, but the amount of petroleum it displaces. He calculates that each megajoule of energy from bioethanol displaces 22 megajoules of energy from petroleum. He argues that we value services that energy can perform, not the energy per se, so it is better to compare fuels by the service they provide not just on a straight energy basis which can only tell part of the life cycle story. Dale’s research adds another component (eg. metrics of comparison) to the complexity of analyzing costs and benefits of biofuel use. This perspective is useful for the CRD to consider when conducting a cost benefit analysis of biofuel use at the local level.
